Each interactive laboratory scene contains a number of clickable points that displays contextual information about the room you are viewing. We realize that screen readers are unable to read the WebGL content. For accessibility purposes, we have compiled the text of the contextual captions below, indicating primary student authors and editors where relevant. We hope, also, that this will help users to locate interactive content in the laboratory scenes. Were you able to find all of these captions?
The student team researched the rooms in Bryn Mawr's Special Collections. For a list of research resources, see the end of this document.
The Advanced Biology Lab was located on the second floor of Dalton Hall. Construction on Dalton Hall at Bryn Mawr College. Construction on Dalton began in 1891; it was designed by architects Charles F. Osborne and J.C. Worthington, and opened for business in 1893. Prior to Dalton's construction, the biology department had relatively little space to operate. Because the old laboratories could only accommodate twenty-nine desks, the department rejected numerous students seeking to major in biology. Dalton provided new laboratories, lecture halls, and equipment storage, which helped to expand the program. The Advanced Biology Lab, like other spaces within Dalton Hall, was built to provide women with a sophisticated scientific education. Students and faculty had access to cutting-edge equipment and facilities. This space was most likely to be occupied by older students. Bryn Mawr was one of the first institutions to offer women a doctorate in biology. When class was not in session, students could use these spaces for their dissertation research.
[Author: Arianna Li, Editor: Courtney Dalton]
Alice Boring (1883-1955) received her Bachelor of Arts in Biology from Bryn Mawr College in 1904. As an undergraduate, she worked under Thomas Hunt Morgan (1866-1945), Professor of Biology and Director of the Biology department. Morgan was interested in embryology, the study of formation and development of embryos and fetuses. His work influenced Boring's early scientific studies; she would eventually co-author thirty-six articles with him. Boring continued on Bryn Mawr, earning a doctorate in 1910 under the supervision of Nettie M. Stevens (1861-1912). After completing her Ph.D., Boring began her career as a cytologist and geneticist. She taught for eight years at the University of Maine. From Maine, she headed overseas to take up a two-year professorship at China's Peking Union Medical College, followed by several decades teaching at Yenching University in Beijing. During her time in China, Boring became interested in China's native species of reptiles and amphibians, ultimately making important contributions to herpetology and zoological taxonomy. At the end of her career, she returned to the United States to teach at Smith College in Northampton, Massachusetts. The photograph depicts Alice Boring on a social outing with Nettie Stevens.
[Author: Arianna Li, Editor: Courtney Dalton]
In 1900, the Biology Department at Bryn Mawr College was under the direction of Dr. Thomas Hunt Morgan (1866-1945), Professor of Biology, Dr. Joseph Warren, Associate Professor of Physiology, and Dr. Harriet Randolph, Demonstrator in Biology and Reader in Botany. The first-year courses, known as minor courses, constituted an introduction to general biology, while the second-year courses, known as major courses, aimed to lay the foundation for studying animal morphology and physiology. The third-year courses, known as post-major courses, were devoted to more advanced subjects and practical investigation of biological problems in the laboratory. Bryn Mawr's biology curriculum complemented that of the John Hopkins University, enabling students to pursue a medical degree at the latter institution. Knowledge of chemistry and physics was encouraged for majors and necessary for the post-major course work in biology. Graduate coursework and degrees were offered to advanced students who had completed a degree at Bryn Mawr or elsewhere. The department maintained a "journal club" for advanced students to discuss current scientific literature with instructors. Graduate students were required to make formal presentations of their research once a fortnight. From 1885-1903, 25% of the undergraduate student body were enrolled in biology. Forty-six students registered for biology courses, thirty-one students were taking first-year (minor) courses, six were taking second-year (major) courses, three were in post-major courses, and six were graduate students.
[Author: Arianna Li, Editor: Courtney Dalton]
Esther Fussell Byrnes (1867-1946) was known for her work in copepodology, the study of small freshwater crustaceans. Born in nearby Overbrook, Pennsylvania, Brynes graduated from Bryn Mawr College in 1891 with a bachelor's degree in biology. After college, she worked as a research assistant in the Biology Department at Vassar College for two years, before returning to Bryn Mawr to pursue a Ph.D under the direction of Professor T. H. Morgan. Her doctoral work, completed in 1898, focused on marine biology. A 1899 publication based on this work appeared in The Journal of Morphology and investigated the maturation and fertilization of the egg of Limax agrestis. Byrnes was able to maintain live specimens for observation in an aquarium. After completing her doctoral work, Byrnes became an instructor in physiology and biology at a high school for girls in Brooklyn, New York, where she remained until 1932, apart from the 1926-7 academic year, which she spent teaching science to Japanese princesses. Byrnes was a member of several professional organizations, including the American Society of Naturalists and the New York Science Teacher's Association. She was also a fellow of the New York Academy of Sciences. In 1940, she became the director of the Mount Desert Biology Laboratory in Salisbury Cove, Maine. Her later research was concerned with the genus Cyclops. A recent graduate of Bryn Mawr around 1900, Byrne's fledgling career and publications inspired students to pursue science after leaving the college.
[Author: Arianna Li, Editor: Courtney Dalton]
Embryology is the study of the formation and development of embryos and fetuses. In the early twentieth century, human embryology was the field of major research interests in biology departments. The study of human embryology sheds important lights on prenatal origins and birth defects by bridging basic sciences (anatomy and physiology) and clinical science. Dr. Thomas Hunt Morgan, Director of the Biology Department at Bryn Mawr College from 1891 to 1904, course work in embryology for both undergraduate and graduate students. "Embryology," the undergraduate class, met an hour a week throughout the academic year. Undergraduates examined embryonic development of frogs, rays, and chicks among other animals. Graduate students could take "Problems in Embryology." According to the Bryn Mawr Calendar, the course description for the advanced class read as follows: "The isotropy of the egg and the relation of cleavage to differentiation, are studied. The evidence for the 'germ layer' theory, and larval forms are considered in reference to their value in phylogeny." Morgan's lectures influenced the future research of many women scientists who studied or worked at Bryn Mawr, including Alice Boring, Nettie Stevens, and Esther Fussell Byrnes.
[Author: Arianna Li, Editor: Courtney Dalton]
At the beginning of the twentieth century, Dalton Hall was Bryn Mawr College's science building. Named after the English scientist John Dalton (1766-1844), Dalton Hall housed classroom, library, and laboratory space for the study of physics, chemistry, biology, botany, and geology. Dalton Hall was initially designed by Professor Charles Osborne (ca. 1854-1913), a professor of architecture, in conversation with faculty members who were dissatisfied with the existing space in Taylor Hall. Initial planning for the building began in late 1891, with John Clifford Worthington (fl. 1884-1897) joining the project in 1892. M. Carey Thomas (1857-1935), President of Bryn Mawr College, led a fundraising campaign for the building. The first floor and the basement of the original building were occupied by the Physics Department, while the second and the third floor were reserved for the Chemistry and Biology Departments. In 1896, the fourth and the fifth floor were expanded to house the Geology Department, founded by Florence Bascom. In December 1893, a greenhouse for the study of botany was added, funded by Bryn Mawr alumnae and current students. Dalton's facilities attracted established scholars to teach at Bryn Mawr College, including Edmund Beecher Wilson (1856-1939), a pioneering American zoologist and geneticist, and Thomas Hunt Morgan (1866-1945), who would go on to win the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1933. These resources allowed a significant number of female students to major in science and conduct original research. The building was renovated several times in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Significant alterations to the original floorplan were made in 1938. After Park Science Building opened in 1939, Dalton Hall eventually lost is identity as the home for the sciences on campus.
[Author: Arianna Li, Editor: Courtney Dalton]
*Note: This caption also appears in the Major Chemistry Lab and will not be repeated in that section.
To better understand zoological anatomy and taxonomy (the science of classification), students dissected dead specimens. Dissection was a routine part of classroom study and research. For example, in 1909, Professor David H. Tennant sent starfish specimens from the Tortugas islands back to Bryn Mawr. His student, Violet H. Keiller, then studying for undergraduate degrees in chemistry and biology, dissected them with an eye to understanding their reproductive organs. Tennant and Keiller co-authored a paper called "The Anatomy of Pentaceros Reticulatus" in 1910. Keiller went on to obtain a M.D. from the University of Texas.
[Team Research]
Lantern slides made for the magic lantern, a device that allowed for image projection, were typically made of glass. The technology for magic lanterns dates back to the seventeenth century. Originally, these glass slides were painted by hand. By the mid-nineteenth century, they were photographic prints on glass. For the magic lantern next to the slide box, slides were inserted two at a time into a wooden frame that could be slid back and forth between the lens and the light source. Supplementary content would be queued up in a slide box in advance of lectures.
[Team Research]
Lectures were occasionally accompanied by magic lanterns, a device that allowed for image projection from glass slides. The technology dates back to the seventeenth century. Magic lanterns were originally powered by oil and candles, and later by chemical means, such as limelight. By the beginning of the twentieth century, it was not uncommon for magic lanterns to be lit by electric incandescent bulbs. Scientific lantern slides might contain diagrams of abstract concepts, microscopic slides, or specimen photography, among other relevant topics.
[Team Research]
Nettie Maria Stevens (1861-1912) was recognized for her work in embryology and cytogenetic, particularly for her work demonstrating that biological sex in living organisms is determined by chromosomes. Stevens was born in Vermont. Her father, Ephraim Stevens, was a carpenter. Her mother, Julia Adams, died when she was two. The family, including a new stepmother, moved to Westford, Massachusetts. Stevens graduated from Westford Academy in 1880, at the age of 18, and continued to Westfield Normal School, with the intent of learning to teach. After graduating, she taught "Minot's Corner School" in Westford for the 1883-4 academic year, followed by six more years of teaching at Westford Academy. In September 1896, Stevens moved to California to pursue a bachelor's degree at Stanford University. There, at the age of 35, she began a major in physiology. Over the next four summers, she conducted research on the cellular anatomy of microscopic organisms at Hopkins Seaside Laboratory. This work became the basis of her master's thesis. In 1901, at the age of 39, Stevens enrolled at Bryn Mawr College to pursue a doctorate degree under Thomas Hunt Morgan (1866-1945). In 1903, Nettie Stevens earned her Ph.D. in biology. Her dissertation, Further Studies on the Ciliate Infusoria Lichnophora and Boveria, built upon the work she conducted for her master's. She applied for and received a $1,000 grant from the Carnegie Institute for the 1904-5 academic year to research the cause of sex determination. In 1905, she published a paper demonstrating that a child's biological sex is determined by chromosomes inherited from its parent. She taught at Bryn Mawr during this time as an associate in experimental morphology. Bryn Mawr created a professorship for Stevens, but she died of breast cancer, at the age of 50, before she could take it.
[Author: Arianna Li, Editor: Courtney Dalton]
Nettie Stevens owned a Zeiss microscope with a serial number of 8261. Zeiss is a German optical company founded by Carl Zeiss in 1846. This microscope is owned by Bryn Mawr Special Collections.
[Team Research]
Microtomes are used to create thin sections of biological materials. These samples can be mounted on glass slides, which can then be viewed under a microscope. A sliding (or sledge) model such as the one on this table contains a top-mounted knife block that can be moved across a biological sample in order to remove a tiny section. The operator can set the microtome blade to cut at a desired thickness in micrometers. Bryn Mawr students and faculty used microtomes to prepare specimen materials for class and research.
[Team Research]
Biological specimens were used in classes at Bryn Mawr College to illustrate anatomy, physiology, and cytology, among other topics relevant to the biology major. Organic material was preserved from further decay by submersing specimens in a fixative fluid, such as formalin, a mixture of formaldehyde and water. The specimen and fluid would be sealed in a glass jar. With care and attention, such specimens could last for hundreds of years. Preserved specimens could later be used as reference, for dissection, or for taking biological samples. Students prepared microscope slides from preserved specimens using machines called microtomes.
[Team Research]
As Bryn Mawr biology students advanced in the major, their coursework demanded familiarity with the related studies of animal morphology, zoology, and physiology. Students studied invertebrates and lower animals first, and proceeded to study vertebrates, particularly mammals, through dissections. The teaching of these topics was often complemented by preserved specimens, skeletons, and models. For the 1893-4 academic year, the department acquired wax models depicting vertebrate brains. These were created by Adolf Ziegler, a renowned German scientific artist. The department prepared preserved the brains of sheep, cats, and dogs using formalin.
[Author: Linda Zhu, Editor: Courtney Dalton]
The biology lab contained microscopes manufactured by Zeiss, a German optical company founded by Carl Zeiss in 1846. When not stored in their original cases, glass bells kept the microscopes and their lenses free of dust. The brass microscopes had high-quality, changeable lenses and would have been used with commercially prepared slides, as well as slides prepared by Bryn Mawr students.
[Team Research]
The Major Chemistry Lab faced Denbigh Hall, a dormitory on Bryn Mawr's campus. Construction on Denbigh began in 1890; the first students moved into the building in early 1891. By the time Dalton Hall was completed, Denbigh would be fully occupied. For students working on experiments and research outside of class, proximity to Dalton's facilities would be helpful. Denbigh was nearly destroyed by fire in 1902 and wired for electric lighting as part of the renovation.
[Team Research]
Bryn Mawr's curriculum in the early twentieth century required each candidate for the degree of Bachelor of Arts to complete coursework in three areas: required studies, two major courses, and free elective courses. Required studies were meant to foster a generalized education in the liberal arts. Major courses were areas of further specialization classified by disciplinary groupings. This "group system" was modeled after a similar system implemented at the Johns Hopkins University, which in turn modeled their system on curriculum at German universities. A major course in the group system consisted of any course comprising five hours per week for two years. When one year of this work is completed it is considered the completion of a minor course. A student pursuing a major course in the Chemistry Department, for example, would first have to complete the minor course. This is different from the modern major and minor system, which does not require one to complete a minor before a major. Students using the Major Chemistry Lab were likely in the second year of their studies in the group system.
[Author: Linda Zhu, Editor: Courtney Dalton]
In 1900, the Chemistry Department was directed by Professor Elmer P. Kolher (1865-1938), Frederick Hutton Getmen, the Associate in Chemistry, and Gertrude Langden Heritage, the Demonstrator in Chemistry. Lectures for the major and minor courses comprised nineteen hours each week. These were held in the classroom spaces and were complemented by ten hours per week of experiments in the laboratories. Topics covered both inorganic and organic chemistry during the first year, and provided comprehensive elementary understanding of the subject matter. During the second year's major courses, studies focused on the "quantitative side of chemical phenomena," with lectures shifting to theoretical and organic chemistry. Post-major courses were designed to incubate independent work. The topics of post-major work, which occupied three hours a week, were decided on a yearly basis by the instructor, but delved into current topics in theoretical, organic, and inorgranic chemistry. Graduate lectures were held for graduate students, who could also attend post-major classes if they desired. Like most graduate students in the sciences, they were required to meet with faculty to discuss current literature and perform formal presentations of laboratory work. Graduate work often required that students be able to read scientific writings in German and French. Chemistry was a popular course of study at Bryn Mawr, and graduates of the program went on to pursue higher degrees at and beyond Bryn Mawr. Others took jobs working for pharmaceutical and chemical manufacturers.
[Author: Linda Zhu, Editor: Courtney Dalton]
The various chemistry labs in Dalton Hall were designed to give students practical, hands-on experience performing chemical experiments. Laboratory work during the first year was expected to take four hours a week. This work was supervised by Frederick Hutton Getman and Gertrude Langden Heritage. Topics covered organic and inorganic chemistry. Laboratory work continued throughout the second year at four hours a week. During the third year, students learned laboratory methods to prepare them to conduct independent experiments in anticipation of pursuing graduate work in chemistry. Graduate students pursued independent experiments under the direction of faculty or instructors. The 1900 course catalog indicates that faculty had no expectations that students would have had access to such facilities prior to arriving at Bryn Mawr. Introductory classes were designed to be open to students with no prior chemistry education. Gertrude Heritage, as the "Demonstrator in Chemistry," would have set up chemistry experiments for students to observe, participate in, and recreate during scheduled laboratory time.
[Team Research]
Gertrude Heritage (1873-1938) was a member of the graduating class of 1896. She pursued a course of study in mathematics and chemistry. She was a graduate student at Bryn Mawr College between 1896 and 1901. She received a master's degree from Bryn Mawr in 1899, continuing for two additional years. Upon her undergraduate graduation, she was employed as a demonstrator in the Chemistry Department at Bryn Mawr College. After discontinuing her graduate work, she remained in this position until 1907. She authored a number of articles for the American Chemical Journal before marrying the scholar and poet Francis Harvey Green (1861-1951) in 1911. After marriage, she turned her attention to philanthropic activities and the women's suffrage movement. While many women who studied science at Bryn Mawr went on to have careers in research, education, and industry, it is important to remember that, at the turn of the twentieth century, gendered expectations of women often made it difficult to pursue employment while married.
[Team Research]
In the early twentieth century, specialized laboratory glassware for experiments could be ordered from equipment manufacturers and school suppliers. Most of the glassware required for coursework could therefore be purchased in quantities suitable for the course of study. Independent research conducted by advanced students may have required special orders on a need-by-need basis. Specialized equipment would need to be commissioned by a glass blower or instrument manufacturer. Several types of glass are employed in laboratory glassware. For example, glass made from quartz can withstand the high heat required from many experiments. Tinted glass can protect unstable chemicals from ultraviolet light. Basic glassware that would have been found in the Major Chemistry Lab include graduated cylinders, a tool for measuring liquids, beakers, flasks, test tubes, glass tubing (which could be cut and molded as necessary), pipettes, retorts, and various jars and bottles used for storage.
[Team Research]
Laboratory tables were outfitted to withstand regular use. They contained appropriate disposal, water and gas supply, and storage. Table drawers could contain additional equipment and protective gear. Because women performed experiments in long skirts and dresses, laboratory aprons, cloth sleeves, and gloves were necessary for protecting one's clothing and body from dangerous chemicals. Like much of the furniture designed for Dalton Hall, the tables were artificially low in anticipation that women (who are shorter than men on average) would be using them. The lowered height, the designers assumed, would make the practice of chemistry more comfortable. Demonstrations were set up on a centralized table, with students following along at their respective stations.
[Team Research]
This laboratory was one of the biggest laboratories in Dalton Hall, occupying the entire west wing of the third floor, where the chemistry department was located. Although not stated explicitly, the general chemistry laboratory was probably mainly used for coursework with large enrollment. Chemistry was a popular course of study; in 1893-94, shortly after Dalton's opening, 33 out of 44 students in the department were pursuing the minor (first-year) course and could then opt to continue the major course. Laboratory experiments demonstrated by instructors were designed to complement lectures in general and organic chemistry. During the first semester, a student could expect to learn the basics of chemical analysis, and in the second she would learn to prepare and examine organic compounds. Beyond scheduled class time, laboratory was open to first-year students for a total of five and a half hours weekly. During this time students could use the laboratory space to practice experiments. The laboratory in 1900 had a characteristic look; the general shape and structure of the lab can be seen in what is now Dalton Hall 300 at Bryn Mawr College, thanks to the preservation of its tresses and peaked ceiling. The floors of the room were lowered during a later renovation, and the arched brickwork from the second story windows can be seen peeking over the floorboards.
[Author: Linda Zhu, Editor: Courtney Dalton]
Matriculation exams were college placement tests. Getting a spot at Bryn Mawr, let alone in the Chemistry Group, required that one take these tests. Potential students needed to demonstrate proficiency in relevant subject matter to be considered for admission. While introductory chemistry coursework was open to complete novices, the test did examine applicants' general scientific knowledge. Matriculation exams were held the week preceding the opening and last week of each academic year. These exams were held on Bryn Mawr's campus, but could be arranged in major cities, including Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Pittsburgh, Chicago, Louisville, Indianapolis, London, or Paris, among others, upon request. Exam fees could cost up to $5, making applications difficult for women who were not local or lacked financial resources. Matriculation examinations were prepared by faculty and divided into fifteen sections of nine subjects: Latin, Mathematics, History, English, Science, Greek, French, German and Advanced Mathematics. Successful admission could be granted to test-takers who attempted all fifteen sections and passed at least eleven of them. The matriculation exam also determined eligibility for undergraduate scholarships. Eight competitive scholarships were awarded to each incoming class. Between exams and limited space in Taylor Hall, the previous location of the science facilities, it may have been more difficult to pursue a course of study in chemistry. The construction of Dalton Hall may have alleviated those pressures by providing more space. Chemistry proved to be the most popular science course of study prior to 1920.
[Author: Linda Zhu, Editor: Courtney Dalton]
A retort is a chemical apparatus used for distilling. Distilling is a process in which one separates substances from liquids through boiling and condensation. Retorts can be made of glass, copper, or ceramic. Typically, a vessel with a bulb and a sloping tube is filled with and placed over a heat source. Vapors travel down the sloping tube and condense in an attached vessel. Retorts were typically used for simple distilling projects, including student work, after the invention of fluid-cooled condensers, such as the Liebig Condenser in 1771.
[Team Research]
Courtney Dalton and Jocelyn Dunkley began examining collections at Bryn Mawr in early 2018. Elia Anagnostou, Tanjuma Haque, Arianna Li, and Linda Zhu visited Special Collections that summer. The team identified a number of relevant collections in Bryn Mawr Special Colletions that may be of interest to researchers looking for information on Bryn Mawr students and faculty in the sciences:
Bryn Mawr Facilities holds blueprints and historical narratives for various science buildings on campus.